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SSEE Maintenance of Maintenance of

Extent accuracy class voltage transformers .- Although over time, accurate measurement transformers can be altered, in Capacitive voltage transformers variations occur more frequently in the transformation ratio due to the change in the value of the capacity of the capacitors that form the voltage divider. The determination of error ratio and angle is done by comparing the voltage measurements registered, with another transformer used as a standard.

insulating oil analysis .- insulating oils are essential components of a large number of electrical equipment including transformers and power measurement. Assessing the state of the insulating oil in service is made according to the following rates of control: appearance and color, water content, neutralization index, dielectric loss factor and breakdown voltage, as well as quantity of particles by size are recorded.

Analysis of dissolved gases in oil .- One of the diagnostic methods providing an advance indication of abnormalities in their functional behavior and to determine the measures to be taken before the team suffered major damage is based on gas chromatographic analysis of insulating oil breakdown from overheating of certain points of the transformer or electric shock inside. Depending on the temperature of the hot spot of the discharge energy, the rates at which different gases are produced by decomposition are different. The effect of the thermal or electrical insulating oils lead to the following decomposition gases: hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen. Determining the content of each gas, the overall assessment and the relationship between the concentrations of different gases and their evolution, one can know not only the existence of a defect, but also the same type and importance. More recently, the above analysis is accompanied with the assessment of the concentration of furfulaldehído derivatives, resulting from thermal degradation of cellulose embedded in solid insulation transformer.

Noise and Vibration Measurements .- These measures are useful for detecting incipient failures in equipment containing moving mechanical parts subject to vibration or friction with fluid, alternating magnetic fields, etc.

electrical insulation measures .- The electrical insulation of HV equipment consisting of oil, porcelain, paper, resins, SF6 gas, etc., Are susceptible to aging over time and conditions of service leading to a progressive loss of their dielectric properties, which requires the control of its evolution. This control is carried out by using the techniques listed here:

• Insulation resistance measurement DC .- Mainly measurement of surface conductivity of the insulation and is used in the detection of imminent failure. Facilitates the decision for immediate intervention, as well as knowledge of the long-term trend of progressive deterioration, the overall estimate of the isolation level actually exists.
• voltage measurement of resorption of oil-paper insulation .- The effect of polarization of a dielectric when subjected to stress and measure the insulation breakdown voltage determined at the previous time load curve polarization spectrum. This test is used to determine the degree of aging of insulating paper impregnated with oil, influenced by moisture content, temperature and absorption of breakdown products.
• dielectric measurement and capacity .- The measure of power factor or loss tangent of the angle in solid and liquid insulators can detect the presence of an effect, although there are layers of insulation in good state in series with the faulty, allowing the measurement to isolate the effect of external insulation. The variation in the ability of an insulation test the existence of conditions abnormalities as the presence of moisture condenser sections shorted or interrupted. Shield ground fault, deformation of windings in power transformers and capacitors deficiencies voltage sharing among others.
• partial discharge measurement .- aging isolates manifested sometimes by the presence of high frequency discharges whose route bypasses, only partially, the insulation between conductors. Contributes to this important addition to the surge, the temperature rise of the computer. The measurement of partial discharge, which has long been an essential part of the qualification tests Electrical and therefore is highly developed in the laboratory, you may incur as errors in adjusting to camp, if not eliminate interfering signals. This technique is used today mainly in the maintenance of transformers, power cables and substations encapsulated SF6. Existing techniques can be classified according to the measured magnitudes and the training unit used, such as measurement of the intensity apparent grounding in the dominant frequency band (featuring inductive sensor for detection), power measurement arc (thermal sensors installed in isolates of SF6) and acoustic detections.
• Measure the excitation current in power transformers .- Measurement of the excitation current at reduced voltage can be used in field to locate certain defects in insulation sheet core structure and magnetic failure of the insulation between turns of the winding and shortcomings of the switching voltage regulator.
• Measure the leakage reactance in power transformers .- The value of the reactance losses often referred to short-circuit impedance testing laboratory, is sensitive to the change of geometry shaped by the flow lines, and field measurement, using low voltage, pede reveal movements and deformations of the windings, open or short circuits between turns.
• response to different frequencies windings .- The transformer winding is formed by a distribution of resistance, inductance and capacitance has a very definite response amplitude and phase, the frequency changes low voltage. Registration and comparison of these responses to different banks often allows detection of variations in the distance between turns and winding deformations.

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3-3 3-2 SSEE

3.1.2 .- systematic preventive maintenance.

consists of a series of tests to perform on computers to verify their status. The work is preventive in nature, but also includes predictive maintenance, and in some cases a corrective.

Predictive maintenance involved when the team performing the tests, you get to know their current status and can then check the status or anticipate future posibles fallas. El mantenimiento preventivo sistemático se realiza generalmente con línea desenergizada, pero existen algunas técnicas que se pueden aplicar sin necesidad de desenergizar la línea. En la mayoría de las industrias el mantenimiento programado se efectúa en días en los que la producción puede ser interrumpida, pero en el caso del servicio eléctrico, ya que su continuidad no puede ser interrumpida, estos trabajos se programan en días en los que el consumo de energía eléctrica es menor que los demás, lo que ocurre generalmente los fines de semana. También existen disposiciones de subestaciones que permiten que algunos equipos puedan ser desenergizados para trabajos de mantenimiento, sin que esto implique the power outage, but still require coordination with those responsible for operation. Predictive maintenance techniques applied in substations, based on recommendations of international standards (IEC-76, IEC-72), are detailed below.

thermographic inspection .- Used by the use of infrared thermo-vision cameras to locate defects by heating, particularly in parts of contact switches, terminals and clamps for connecting the equipment, with reference to the ambient temperature and other healthy phase. It is implemented by a sweep of all electrical connections in a park and can record the temperature distribution in a
equipment housed in normal conditions of service arrangements.

voltage measurement step and touch .- The electrical installations are produced circumstantial, earth fault currents generated by potential elevations of the land, which can become dangerous for people who work there . To ensure that these potentials are not dangerous, the rules define the maximum allowable voltage and method of measurement of step and touch voltage, injection of current in the grounding network. It also establishes the need to measure tensions that can be transferred out of the substation and the determination of the diffusion resistance of a substation grounding, newly built or in operation, to verify its condition over time.

contact resistance measurement .- The electrical characteristics of a contact, switching elements, depend on the number of interruptions and the cumulative arc energy, and that cause the wear of its components, pressure loss contact and the presence of impurities in particular insulation film deposited on the surface. Also, the stresses produced during the failure, action wind and vibration during the maneuvers, worsen the mechanical properties of the connection points of equipment. The control of the value of electrical resistance at the junctions of conductors forming an electrical circuit, to determine the maximum intensity that can flow through them, without exceeding the limits allowed heating for each type of material making up the union .

• dynamic resistance switches .- Due to the design of the contacts in some switches, which have main contacts and arc, is used during the performance of the displacement curve of the same, to continuously record the voltage drop in the cutting chamber at the beginning and end of the opening and closing.
  
• dynamic resistance of load tap changers .- An important part of the failures in power transformers caused by the aging of the contacts of the load tap changer (CTC). State inspection of the contacts of the selector is laborious because of its location. It is applying a new method to diagnose the state of the sliding contacts during the switching process by preventing the disassembly for inspection, based on obtaining the oscillogram corresponding to the change in intensity due to the influence of the value of resistance occurring during each feeding switching voltage regulation (resistance switching contact and the corresponding winding.)

winding resistance measurement .- The electrical resistance of the winding of the transformer windings is altered by the existence of short circuits between windings, thermal defects in their isolation by deficiencies in the contacts of the regulator in charge of the transformer. The control of the value of this resistance facilitates the maintenance decision making, especially in interventions for failure. Measures

operating times .- One of the main measures performed in the maintenance of electrical control switches or pneumatic and especially switches, is to control own time required in performing closing and opening. The control of these values \u200b\u200ballows the necessary adjustments to ensure proper operation of equipment and allows you to schedule the review necessary to adequately replace parts and components.

• Sync switch between cameras .- The measurement of time to maneuver in each of the chambers of the switch allows to know the level achieved by the contacts sync, both linearly (between cutting chambers of each phase ) and transverse (entre fases) facilitando una información complementaria del balance de energías en la maniobra.
• Tiempo de reposición de energía del mando de accionamiento del interruptor.- En interruptores con mando a resortes se mide el tiempo de carga de resortes para poder asegurar que las maniobras son realizadas en condiciones óptimas. En mandos neumáticos es necesario verificar la actuación de los presostatos. Cuando los tiempos obtenidos difieran o presenten desviaciones significativas con respecto a los valores de referencia, se procederá a la revisión de los sistemas de carga: motores, compresores, conducciones, conexiones eléctricas, tensión, etc.
• graphic analysis of displacement of contacts in switches .- The diagnostic method used to determine the mechanical condition of a switch is based on obtaining graphical displacement curves of main contacts during maneuvers closing, opening and closing on missing. Graphic analysis conducted in the facility and whose interpretation is amply supported by the use of remote diagnostic, we obtain the following parameters:

1. Total stroke (traveling) .- Value defined by the difference from the initial position before the start of the maneuver, until the final position at the end of the maneuver.
2. contacts .- Penetration distance in the opening of the main contact between the closed position and the electrical isolation of contacts.
3. opening and closing speed .- intervals are measured in the displacement graph indicated by the manufacturer: arc zone in the opening and the closing prearco.
4. Damping, overtravel and bounce .- The discussed in the relevant areas of the chart, looked at whether the damping is correct and there is no sobrerrecorridos, ni rebotes en número y amplitud excesivos.

Gráficos de consumo de bobinas y motores.- El control del consumo en las bobinas de apertura contribuye al conocimiento del estado de los sistemas eléctricos y mecánicos del interruptor, obteniéndose normalmente del registro gráfico de la intensidad realizado simultáneamente con el registro de desplazamiento de contactos, tiempos de maniobra, y tensión de alimentación en bornas del armario de mando. El registro del consumo del motor facilita una información complementaria a la del tiempo de reposición de energía del mando en interruptores y sirve
igualmente para controlar el comportamiento del disconnectors control during maneuvers. Measure

pollution deposited on insulators .- These measures seek to determine when the contamination deposited on the insulator can reach a dangerous value, taking into account not only the type of pollutant, but the atmospheric and geographical substation. To do this, you can take successive samples of deposited pollution and predict their evolution, which is not always easy, or measuring the number and extent of surface discharges by appropriate equipment, which information is processed and continuously recorded by PC .

Measure leakage current arrester .- ZnO arresters are subjected during service to the influence of different voltage, switching both temporal and atmospheric aging components and can cause it to malfunction. Evaluation of ZnO arresters can be made from the measurement and control of the resistive component of leakage current through them permanently during normal service.

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expansion of consciousness

This technique is designed to help athletes identify the different attentional styles and focuses more appropriate for various specific sports that are involved.
to practice this exercise, athletes should be sitting or lying in a comfortable position.
1 - First you get athletes focus on your breathing. The first minute makes them breathe more deeply and slowly, while keeping the chest, shoulders and neck relaxed. Returns to normal breathing for three or four times and returns to deep breathing until it is comfortable, easy and regular.
then athletes should pay attention to what they hear, indicating that separate sounds, identify and then classify them mentally: "steps", "voice", "cough" ...
2 - Then, simultaneously they must listen all sounds without trying to identify or classify them. Must listen to the mix of sounds, such as if left running music while verbal thinking.
3 - then should be aware of their own bodily sensations, such as the feeling of the chair or the ground on which rests the body. Mentally must catalog all be feeling as felt. Before switching to another feeling must be extended consideration. Consider the quality and origin. Finally you have to experience all the sensations simultaneously without identifying them or label them in a certain way. This makes it essential to introduce an internal body awareness.
4 - In this step only pay attention to emotions or thoughts, allowing every thought or emotion displayed smoothly without being forced. Identifying the nature of the thoughts or feelings. Staying calm, no matter how pleasant or unpleasant are of, in succession, one after another. Then try to empty of all thought or feeling. If this is not possible with only one tune and focus attention and him.
5 - Open your eyes and pick something from the room that is directly in front of oneself. While it is seen directly ahead, look around the room and things in it to make way for peripheral vision. Simultaneously observe the room and everything in it. Imagine a funnel in which the mind is moving, and fair and its center is the initial object, which is directly opposite. Narrowing the focus to gradually reduce the funnel, so that the only thing there at the end of either this object. Expand attention gradually widening the funnel until you can see everything in the room.
This exercise is intended to illustrate the athlete to focus attention on stimuli that interest you, and learn to play with the breadth of attentional focus.

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3. Integrated maintenance

According to that seen previously, giving the substation maintenance guidance to the availability of equipment, and taking into account work system in Power Systems (transmission and distribution, mainly), maintenance of substations should be built, ie look at maintenance as a whole, whose components are in preventive maintenance, corrective and proactive.

3.1. Preventive maintenance.

substation Preventive maintenance is divided into two components:

- Visual inspection.
- Preventive maintenance scheduled or systematic.

3.1.1. Visual inspection.

This type of maintenance is done on a monthly basis, without de-energizing the line, do not use tools or instruments in most cases, and as its name suggests is only visual inspections. Its aim is to visually inspect the external condition of equipment, scoring on a form the results of that inspection.

The forms have a box for each phase, ie three for the teams, where points are scored for the team outside the state, according to the following criteria:

There are certain items that are observed when a visual inspection, and records the status of these items in the forms of inspection, as mentioned above. For equipment of a substation, we have:

• power transformer: civil Construcciones, Tank, grounding, porcelains of the bushings, cleaning, conservator tank, radiators, fans, silica, Buchholz relay changer with taps, gauge, gauge, oil level, temperature indicator, control box, tertiary oil temperatures and coils.
• switches (oil, SF6, vacuum, air): civil foundations, structure, grounding, porcelain, status indicator, command, terminal blocks, heating, leaks, oil leaks, gas pressure (N2) , number of operations, sealing.
• transformers (CT's, PT's, CCPD's): civil foundation, structure, grounding, porcelains, oil sight glass, oil level, heater box, terminal blocks, level of N2 capacitor.
• Disconnectors: civil foundations, structure, grounding, porcelain, leakage control, relay ground.
• Lightning: civil foundations, structure, grounding, porcelain, grading ring, number of downloads, power connection.
• Capacitor bank: Foundations civilians, support structure, grounding, safety net, signs, insulators connections for leaks.
• Battery Bank: support structure, grounding, ventilation, blood bank, each cell voltage, level, temperature, density.

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SSEE Maintenance of substations - 02

2. Substation Maintenance Guidance

When looking for a philosophy applicable to the maintenance in substations, one can find that guide the maintenance to the equipment available is more adjustable to the needs and characteristics of this component of power systems. This guidance should be based, perhaps, in the arguments used in the philosophy of Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) and Reliability Based Maintenance (RCM). Before discussing the arguments applicable to the maintenance in substations, it may be necessary to mention why the two types of maintenance, are not directly applicable to substations, ie each for himself alone and completely applied to substations.

The TPM is a maintenance philosophy that demands high quality in the maintenance work, which is not difficult to obtain, but consequently requires that the systems that apply this philosophy to the level of "zero failures", knowing that in power systems most of the failures are due to external factors, often beyond their control (weather conditions, for example), you can not reach the level of "zero failures" without significantly increase operating costs, and therefore the unit price of electricity.

On the other hand, the RCM is a maintenance system that is based on reliability, ie the system in implementing the RCM should continue their normal work despite the emergence of a failure of the failure of some component system, and this is achieved by replacing the component in the production system, whether this replacement is similar or not, the point is that the system maintain its production rate. It is known that a substation has the function of transmitting power from one system to another, and that each component meets the same unique features on this team, therefore, in the absence of one of them, no matter the cause not be possible to replace or ignore this component for power transmission to continue because this could lead to major failures, or system downtime, which could have been avoided if the component in question had been on duty.

But this does not rule out the types of maintenance mentioned for use in substations, it is noteworthy that the RCM can be part of TPM applied to a production system, if analyzed, the TPM is a philosophy that is more concerned the human resource maintenance, and behavior in the development of this function, the production system itself, and the RCM is more inclined to the production system and its reliability. Therefore, these arguments can be applied to any system including substations.

This leads to find the reliability of a substation, and as mentioned above, to achieve this should find the availability of computers in the same, as' equipment available to perform their function, and therefore the system will reliable '. For the equipment available, preventive maintenance will play an important role, thereby leaving the possibility of failure due mainly to external factors, is where the corrective maintenance must play its role, and for the proper performance of such maintenance, the Security staff should behave, order and discipline required, and is where the TPM is applied. But maintenance is not static, it is evolving, so needs updating, analysis and reflection for continuous improvement, that is when proactive maintenance is involved. The three maintenance mentioned are intertwined, which will become an integrated maintenance applied to substations.

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Maintenance of substations - 01

1. INTRODUCTION

is common knowledge that today, power is required for many aspects of daily life, no one is exempt the use of electricity, in one way or another, either at home or at work, operating equipment, workshops, TV, offices, theaters, etc.. This leads to the conclusion that the electrical service must be continuous.

must be borne in mind that this service should be provided in the best quality, and today, there are laws and regulatory systems that ensure compliance with these regulations by the electricity companies, both with regard to service continuity and quality of it.

Electric Power Systems (EPS), have several components and each with unique characteristics, and these are an important part of the whole system, provided each with specific functions, different from other components, but important for the proper functioning of the system, both in terms of quality and service continuity. One of these components are substations, whose function is to interconnect circuits
each other, with the same characteristics of power, albeit to varying onsome cases (voltage and current).

substations can be of transmission or distribution, high or medium voltage, and its components, and the disposition of these may vary one substation to another, but the characteristics of the components will always be the same, and each will also inside the substation, specific and important functions at once. Exist in a substation, switchgear, responsible for joining together or open circuits, power transformers, responsible for transmitting power from one system to another with the desired characteristics of current and voltage transformers, which are responsible for measuring the characteristics electrical signal for protection and registration sections, which together or separate circuits, capacitor banks, which serve to compensate the voltage drop at the end of the line transmission, the lightning rod that protects against shock, just to name a few.

Considering that the substations are an important component of the power system, besides being the most economic cost, and the continuity of the service depends largely on them, is necessary to implement these systems (substations) adequate maintenance management. This management must observe the preventive maintenance, predictive maintenance encompassing, quite frequently to check the status of equipment, corrective maintenance to preventive repair or replacement, which should have some emergency response planning, and proactive maintenance, for the analysis and periodic review of management and the evolution of maintenance and procedures. All these interrelated with each other, thus forming the Integrated Maintenance.

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